Self-directed learning: A fundamental competence in a rapidly changing world

Self-directed learning is a fundamental competence for adults living in our modern world, where social contextual conditions are changing rapidly, especially in a digital age. The purpose of the present article is to review key issues concerning self-directed learning in terms of (1) what are the historical foundations of the self-directed learning concept?; (2) who may benefit from self-directed learning?; (3) who is likely to carry it out?; and (4) what does research show regarding outcomes of the self-directed learning process? The author takes into consideration humanistic philosophy, pragmatic philosophy and constructivist epistemology, which together concern a process of learning that is individual, purposeful and developmental. Potentially everyone can benefit from self-directed learning competence, but both societal and individual factors may influence whether self-directed learning is likely to be carried out. The author discusses a number of empirical studies that examine outcomes of the self-directed learning process in informal/non-formal online contexts and in formal educational settings. Research findings highlight the importance of realising the opportunity to foster learners’ self-directed learning competence in formal educational settings.

Résumé

L’auto-apprentissage, une compétence indispensable dans un monde en rapide mutation – L’apprentissage auto-dirigé est une compétence décisive pour les adultes de notre monde moderne, où les contextes sociaux évoluent constamment, en particulier à l’ère du numérique. Le présent article poursuit le but de recenser les grandes questions sur l’apprentissage auto-dirigé : 1) Quelles sont les bases historiques du concept d’auto-apprentissage ? 2) Qui peut tirer profit de l’auto-apprentissage ? 3) Qui est susceptible de l’accomplir ? 4) Que révèle la recherche sur les résultats de la démarche d’auto-apprentissage ? L’auteur prend en considération la philosophie humaniste, la philosophie pragmatique et l’épistémologie constructiviste, qui ensemble affectent une démarche d’apprentissage individuelle, intentionnelle et évolutive. Toute personne peut potentiellement tirer profit de la compétence en auto-apprentissage, mais des facteurs individuels et sociétaux peuvent influencer la probabilité que l’auto-apprentissage soit accompli. L’auteur analyse plusieurs études empiriques qui examinent les résultats de la démarche d’auto-apprentissage, à la fois dans des contextes en ligne non formels et informels et dans des cadres éducatifs formels. Les résultats scientifiques signalent l’importance de créer des opportunités de stimuler la compétence en auto-apprentissage dans les cadres éducatifs formels.

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Notes

In a nutshell, behaviourism is a theory of human learning. A learning process regarded through a behaviourist lens is characterised by predictable, measurable and pre-definable learning outcomes for all learners (Murtonen et al. 2017). From a behaviourist perspective, the ultimate learning objective of a learning process is to control learners’ behaviour – to shape their growth in a particular direction (Bruner 1966; Skinner 1987 [1971]; Thorndike 1898; Watson 1913). Thus, the process benefits from learners acting meekly and uncritically rather than actively or judgmentally (Dewey 2013 [1916]).

Constructivism also represents a theoretical approach to understanding the nature of knowledge. It refers to a learner’s experience of discovering how elements of knowledge are “constructed” and how they are connected to other elements. A learning process regarded through a constructivist lens concerns learning in which an inquiry project drives the learning process, where active and judgemental (critical) thinking is fundamental in facilitating successful learning: a process that represents learners solving or resolving authentic real-world-based problems (Jonassen 1999; Morris 2019a).

Humanistic philosophy in an educational context concerns a developmental process of learning in which emphasis is placed on facilitating desirable and responsible personal learner growth towards learner self-actualisation (Elias and Merriam 1995; Groen and Kawalilak 2014). Pragmatic philosophy concerns the importance of testing theoretical concepts in real-world contexts to assess their effectiveness, which is viewed as necessary to secure deep understanding (see Morris 2019c for a further discussion of experiential learning theory, which is founded on pragmatism).

Epistemology refers to the theory of knowledge (see footnote 2 above for an explanation of constructivism).

According to the Council of Europe, “informal learning takes place outside schools and colleges and arises from the learner’s involvement in activities that are not undertaken with a learning purpose in mind. Informal learning is involuntary and an inescapable part of daily life; for that reason, it is sometimes called experiential learning.” (CoE n.d., para. 3, italics in original).

Further Education (FE) refers to any study after secondary education that is not part of higher education (i.e. not part of an undergraduate or graduate degree). In England, overwhelmingly the most common qualifications undertaken in Further Education colleges are various vocational education and training certificates by 16- to 18-year-old learners (see Morris 2018b).

“Numerous studies have verified the factor structure and construct validity of the Big Five constructs (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism; Costa and McCrae, 1994). The five-factor model suggests that there are five independent factors of personality most commonly labeled: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (often referred to by the acronym OCEAN)” (Kirwan et al. 2014, p. 3).

Narrow traits are defined as “either subscales of the Big Five or as traits not encompassed by the Big Five model” (Kirwan et al. 2010, p. 22), such as Sense of Identity, Optimism, Tough-Mindedness and Work Drive (see Kirwan et al. 2010).

The Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) is a 24-item instrument developed by Lorys Oddi to identify self-directed continuing learners by considering their personality characteristics. The Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) “is a self-report questionnaire with Likert-type items developed by Dr. Lucy M. Guglielmino in 1977. It is designed to measure the complex of attitudes, skills, and characteristics that comprise an individual’s current level of readiness to manage his or her own learning” (http://www.lpasdlrs.com/ [accessed 13 June 2019]). The Personal Responsibility Orientation to Self-Direction in Learning Scale (PRO-SDLS) aims to “measure self-directedness in learning among college students based on an operationalisation of the personal responsibility orientation (PRO) model of self-direction in learning” (Stockdale and Brockett 2011, p. 161).

Knowledge gap theory concerns “the increase of information in society [that] leads to differing reception dependent on socioeconomic status” (Rohs and Ganz 2015, p. 3, in reference to the work of Tichenor et al. 1970).

Systemic-constructivism, which builds on the concept of constructivism (see footnote 2 above) concerns a theoretical perspective on learning and the process of meaning-making (knowledge construction), which posits that a “learner’s personal understanding of the world and how they interpret new experiences, and make meaning of the world in which they live, is determined by their unique set of experiences and interpretations of themselves and their world since birth. Meaning-making is always an individual and personal, unique, process. However, in addition, a key consideration is that experience and learning never occurs in a social or contextual vacuum” (Morris 2019b, p. 304).

Rather than being concerned with what information we have learned (what we know), constructive-developmental theory highlights that appreciating our way of knowing is essential. Kegan’s (2009) constructive-developmental theory proposes that over time the ways in which we understand and construct experience can become more complex.

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